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Nuclear History :
Time Line
1895
Wilhelm Rontgen discovers x-rays. The world immediately appreciates their
medical potential. Within five years, for example, the British Army is using a
mobile x-ray unit to locate bullets and shrapnel in wounded soldiers in the
Sudan.
1896
Henri Becquerel discovers the emission of rays by uranium.
1897
J.J. Thomson discovers the electron.
1898
Pierre and Marie Curie discover the first radioactive elements: radium and
polonium.
1901
Henri Alexandre Danlos and Eugene Bloch place radium in contact with a
tuberculous skin lesion.
1903
Rutherford and Soddy establish the theory of nuclear reactions.
1903
Alexander Graham Bell suggests placing sources containing radium in or near
tumors.
1905
Albert Einstein develops theory about the relationship of mass and energy:
E=mc2.
1911
George von Hevesy conceives the idea of using radioactive tracers. This idea is
later applied to, among other things, medical diagnosis.
1913
Niels Bohr introduces the first atom model, the mini solar system.
1913
Frederick Proescher publishes the first study on the intravenous injection of
radium for therapy of various diseases.
1924
Georg de Hevesy, J.A. Christiansen and Sven Lomholt perform the first
radiotracer (lead-210 and bismuth-210) studies in animals.
1927
Herman Blumgart, a Boston physician, first uses radioactive tracers to diagnose
heart disease.
1930-
1932
Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker in Germany, Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie in
France, and James Chadwick in the United Kingdom conduct a series of experiments
which culminate in Chadwick's discovery of the neutron.
1932
Ernest O. Lawrence and M. Stanley Livingston publish the first article on
"the production of high speed light ions without the use of high
voltages." It is a milestone in the production of usable quantities of
radionuclides.
1934
Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie discover artificial radioactivity.
1936
John H. Lawrence, the brother of Ernest, makes the first clinical therapeutic
application of an artificial radionuclide when he uses phosphorus-32 to treat
leukemia.
1937
John Livingood, Fred Fairbrother and Glenn Seaborg discover iron-59. 1938 John
Livingood and Glenn Seaborg discover iodine-131 and cobalt-60 - all isotopes
currently used in nuclear medicine.
1938
Two German scientists, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman, demonstrate nuclear
fission.
1939
Halban, Frederic Joliot-Curie and Kowarski demonstrate that fission of uranium
can cause a chain reaction. They take a first patent on the production of
nuclear energy.
1939
Emilio Segre and Glenn Seaborg discover technetium-99m - an isotope currently
used in nuclear medicine.
1940
The Rockefeller Foundation funds the first cyclotron dedicated for biomedical
radioisotope production at Washington University in St. Louis.
1942
The Manhattan Project is formed to secretly build the atomic bomb before the
Nazis.
1942
Fermi demonstrates the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in a lab at
the University of Chicago.
1945
The United States drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan
surrenders.
1946
Samuel M. Seidlin, Leo D. Marinelli and Eleanor Oshry treat a patient with
thyroid cancer with iodine-131, an "atomic cocktail."
1947
Benedict Cassen uses radioiodine to determine whether a thyroid nodule
accumulates iodine, helping to differentiate benign from malignant nodules.
1948
Nuclear chain reaction achieved in ZOE, the first French atomic pile in Fort de
Chatillon.
1948
Abbott Laboratories begins distribution of radioistopes.
1950
K.R. Crispell and John P. Storaasli use iodine-131 labeled human serum albumin (RISA)
for imaging the blood pool within the heart.
1951
Electricity from nuclear energy first produced in the US (100 kilowatts) in
Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 (EBR1) at the National Reactor Station, later
called the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory.
1951
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approve sodium iodide 1-131 for use
with thyroid patients. It is the first FDA-approved radiopharmaceutical.
1952
Operations begin at the Savannah River Plant in Aiken, South Carolina with the
startup of the heavy water plant.
1953
In his Atoms for Peace speech, President Eisenhower proposes joint international
cooperation to develop peaceful applications of nuclear energy.
1953
Gordon Brownell and H.H. Sweet build a positron detector based on the detection
of annihilation photons by means of coincidence counting.
1954
The first nuclear submarine, Nautilus, is launched.
1954
First nuclear power plant begins operation in the Obninsk Scientific Center,
Russia (5 megawatts).
1954
David Kuhl invents a photorecording system for radionuclide scanning. This
development moves nuclear medicine further in the direction of radiology.
1954
President Dwight Eisenhower signs Atomic Energy Act, opening door to private use
of nuclear energy.
1955
Arco, Idaho becomes the first U.S. town to be powered by nuclear energy.
1955
Rex Huff measures the cardiac output in man using iodine-131 human serum
albumin.
1956
G1, first French nuclear power plant begins operation in Marcoule (5 megawatts).
1957
The United States sets off first underground nuclear test in a mountain tunnel
in the remote desert 100 miles from Las Vegas.
1957
Radiation is released when the graphite core of the Windscale nuclear reactor in
England catches fire.
1957
The first U.S. large-scale nuclear power plant begins operating in Shippingport,
Pennsylvania.
1958
Hal Anger invents the "scintillation camera," an imaging device that
made it possible to conduct dynamic studies.
1958
USSR approves potato and grain irradiation.
1959
The Dresden-1 Nuclear Power Station in Illinois achieves a self-sustaining
nuclear reaction. It's the first U.S. nuclear power plant built entirely without
government funding.
1959
First fast breeder reactor begins operation in the Obninsk Scientific Center,
Russia (12 megawatts).
1960
Louis G. Stang, Jr., and Powell (Jim) Richards advertise technetium-99m and
other generators for sale by Brookhaven National Laboratory. Technetium-99m had
not yet been used in nuclear medicine.
1960
Canada approves potato irradiation.
1960
The Atomic Energy Commission announces the successful development of a 220-pound
nuclear reactor designed to provide electric power for space vehicles.
1962
David Kuhl introduces emission reconstruction tomography. This method later
became known as SPECT and PET. It was extended in radiology to transmission
X-ray scanning, known as CT.
1963
The United States and Soviet Union sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty, which
prohibits underwater, atmospheric, and outer space nuclear tests. More than 100
countries have ratified the treaty since 1963.
1963
The FDA exempts the "new drug" requirements for radiopharmaceuticals
regulated by the Atomic Energy Commission.
1963
Henry Wagner first uses radiolabeled albumin aggregates for imaging lung
perfusion in normal persons and patients with pulmonary embolism.
1963
U.S. FDA approves irradiated bacon, wheat, and wheat flour and potatoes.
1964
U.S. FDA approves flexible packaging materials of food as contaminants during
irradiation processing.
1964
The world's first nuclear powered lighthouse, the "Baltimore Light,"
on the Chesapeake Bay in Md., goes into operation. A 60-watt radioisotope
nuclear generator, 345 inches high, weighing 4,600 pounds, supplies a continuous
flow of electricity for 10 years without refueling.
1966-
1967
The large number of utility orders for nuclear power reactors makes nuclear
power a commercial reality in the United States.
1968
Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT)--calling for halting the spread of nuclear
weapons capabilities--is signed. By 1970, more than 50 countries had ratified
the NPT. By 1986, more than 130 countries had ratified it.
1969
C.L. Edwards reports the accumulation of gallium-67 in cancer.$nbsp; In 1970 The
FDA announces that it will gradually withdraw the exemption granted to
radiopharmaceuticals and start regulating them as drugs. The change would be
completed by Jan. 20, 1977.
1971
The American Medical Association officially recognizes nuclear medicine as a
medical speciality.
1972
Computer axial tomography, commonly known as CAT scanning, is introduced. A CAT
scan combines many high-definition, cross-sectional x-rays to produce a
two-dimensional image of a patient's anatomy.
1973
Phenix, first French fast breeder power plant in operation in Marcoule (250
megawatts).
1973
Energy crisis due to Arab oil embargo.
1973
H. William Strauss introduces the exercise stress-test myocardial scan.
1976
John Keyes develops the first general purpose single photo emission computed
tomography (SPECT) camera. Ronald Jaszczak develops the first dedicated head
SPECT camera.
1976
Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation (JEFCI) approves several irradiated
foods and recommends that food irradiation be classified as a physical process.
1977
President Carter bans the recycling of used nuclear fuel from commercial
reactors.
1977
The Voyager 2 spacecraft is launched carrying a 12-inch copper phonograph record
containing greetings in every language. The spacecraft's electricity is
generated by the decay of plutonium 238 pellets.
1978
David Goldenberg uses radiolabeled antibodies to image tumors in humans.
1979
Three Mile Island nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania suffers a
partial core meltdown. Minimal quantity of radioactive material is released.
(See History at Three Mile Island on the ANS web site.)
1980
JEFCI approves all irradiated foods treated with a maximum average dose of
10kGy.
1981
J.P. Mach uses radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies for tumor imaging.
1982
Steve Larson and Jeff Carrasquillo use iodine-131 labeled monoclonial antibodies
to treat cancer patients with malignant melanoma.
1983
U.S. FDA and Canadian Health & Welfare Department approve spice irradiation.
1985
U.S. FDA approves irradiation of pork to control trichinosis.
1986
Chernobyl nuclear reactor melts down and fire occurs in the Ukraine. Massive
quantities of radioactive material are released.
1986
U.S. FDA approves irradiation of fruits and vegetables and other foods up to
doses of one kGy.
1987
Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act designates Yucca Mountain, Nevada as
candidate for nation's first geological repository for high-level radioactive
waste and spent nuclear fuel.
1988
U.S. electricity demand is 50% higher than in 1973.
1989
109 nuclear power plants provide 19% of the electricity used in U.S.; 46 units
have entered service during this decade.
1989
The FDA approves the first positron radiopharmaceutical (rubidium-82) for
myocardial perfusion imaging.
1989
Galileo Mission is launched aboard the space shuttle Atlantis.
1990
110 nuclear power plants in the U.S. set a record for the amount of electricity
generated, surpassing all fuel sources combined in 1956.
1990
The Ulysses mission is launched aboard the space shuttle Discovery.
1990
The FDA approves irradiation of packaged fresh or frozen uncooked poultry and
supports it as an effective control of microorganisms responsible for a major
portion of food-borne illness, including Salmonella, Yersinia, and Campylobacter.
1991
111 nuclear power plants operate in the U.S. produce almost 22% of the
electricity generated commercially in the U.S.
1992
The FDA approves the first monoclonal antibody radiopharmaceutical for tumor
imaging.
1992
DOE signs cooperative agreement with the nuclear industry to co-fund the
development of standard designs for advanced light water reactors.
1992
The Energy Policy Act of 1992 is signed into law. The Act makes several
important changes in the licensing process for nuclear power plants.
2001
Finland considers order of new nuclear power plant.
2002
DOE and the U.S. nuclear industry cooperate on site location for new nuclear
power plant.
2002
House of Representatives approves Yucca Mountain as final disposal site for
spent nuclear fuel.
Credit:
U.S. Department of Energy, International Atomic Energy Agency, U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, Nuclear Science Division ---- Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Penn State Radiation Science and Engineering Center, American
Nuclear Society
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